Basic English 101
UNIT 1: GRAMMAR
What is English Grammar?
English grammar is a body of rules (grammar) specifying how phrases and sentences are constructed in the English language.
Grammar Lessons:
(a) Nouns
(b) Pronouns
(c) Verbs
(d) Verb Tenses
(e) Adverbs
(f)Adjectives
LESSON A: NOUNS
What is a noun?
A noun is a word that names a person, animal, place, thing, idea, or concept. There are more nouns in the English Language than any other kind of words.
Examples of Nouns:
Persons: girl, boy, teacher, student, Mr. Bean, John, president
Animals: dog, cat, rabbit, hamster, fish, horse, flea
Places: gym, store, school, village, Europe, Asia, bookstore
Things: computer, pen, notebook, mailbox, door, tree, curtain
Ideas: panic, attention, knowledge, compassion, worship
SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS: FORMATION OF PLURAL NOUNS
Singular means one of something.
Plural means more than one.
You can make most nouns plural by just adding -s
one tree - four trees
one boat – a river full of boats
If the noun ends with -s, -ch, -sh, -x, or -z, add -es to make it plural
witness– witnesses
church – churches
dish– dishes
fox - foxes
buzz – buzzes
If the noun ends with -y and the letter before the -y is a vowel, add -s to make the noun plural.
boy–boys
bay – bays
key – keys
toy - toys
If the noun ends with -y and the letter before the -y is a consonant, change the -y to -i and add -es to make the noun plural.
army – armies
supply - supplies
sky - skies
Nouns ending in -ff become plural by adding -s
tariff - tariffs
sheriff - sheriffs
plaintiff - plaintiffs
The inconsistency of rules is shown in the plurals of nouns which ends in –f or -fe Some become plural by replacing the -f to -v and adding -s or -es
knife - knives
wife - wives
half - halves
leaf - leaves
Other nouns ending in -f or -fe become plural by only adding -s
belief - beliefs
proof - proofs
chief - chiefs
TYPES OF NOUNS
1. COMMON NOUNS
A common noun names any regular, ordinary person, animal, place, thing, or idea. Nothing specific.
Examples of Common Nouns: superhero, river, holiday, religion, month, day, city, composer, boy, car, language
2. PROPER NOUNS
A proper noun names a very specific, very particular person, animal, place, thing, or idea. A proper noun always begins with capital letter (is capitalized).
Examples of Proper Nouns: Batman, Mississippi River, Fourth of July, Buddhism, December, Monday, London, Ludwig van Beethoven, Peter, Volvo, Spanish
3. CONCRETE NOUNS
A concrete noun names a person, animal, place, or thing that you can actually see, touch, taste, hear, or smell. Concrete nouns are something physical.
Examples of concrete nouns: spaghetti, muffins, perfume, water, book, room, pen, composer, boy, car
4. ABSTRACT NOUNS
An abstract noun names an idea, feeling, emotion, or quality that cannot be detected by your five senses.
Examples of abstract nouns: prettiness, pleasure, annoyance, skill, nature, communication, love, velocity, education
5. COLLECTIVE NOUNS
A collective noun names a group of people, animals or things.
Examples of Collective Nouns:
People: audience, crowd, jury, family, group, nation, staff, cast, gang, team
Animals: flock, colony, swarm, gaggle, herd
Things: bunch, bundle, set, stack, cache, batch, bouquet
6. COMPOUND NOUNS
A compound noun is made up of two or more words used together.
Compound nouns can be:
One word: shoelace, keyboard, flashlight, applesauce, notebook, bedroom
Hyphenated: sky-scraper, boy-friend, baby-sitter, editor-in-chief, great-grandfather
Two words: police officer, seat belt, high school, word processor, post office
7. COUNTABLE NOUNS
A countable noun is a type of noun that can be:
Presented in both the singular form and the plural form
Represented by a number, such as two cats, five books
8. UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
Uncountable nouns are nouns that can not be counted.
Examples of uncountable nouns: water, air, grass, paint, oil etc.
LESSON B: PRONOUNS
What is a pronoun?
A Pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.
Usually pronouns refer to something that was already mentioned in previous sentence or understood by the listener or reader. They are very useful words because when you use them, you do not need to repeat nouns all the time.
Without pronouns
Sara is my neighbor. Sara says that Sara likes to sleep.
With pronouns
Sara is my neighbor. She says that she likes to sleep.
TYPES OF PRONOUNS
1. PERSONAL PRONOUNS
In order to use personal pronouns, it is important to know about case (subject, object, and possessive), number (singular and plural), person (first, second, and third), and gender (male, female and neutral).
Subject Pronouns: I, you, she, he, it, we, they are used as a subject or predicate noun.
She is a teacher.
It was he who said that.
Object Pronouns: me, you, him, her, them, us, it are used as an indirect object, direct object, or object of a preposition.
She baked him a pie.
I can hardly see it.
They are going with us.
2. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS: mine, yours, his, hers, theirs, ours, its take the place of possessive nouns.
If this isn’t ours, it must be theirs.
Yours is much better then mine.
Below show the breakdown of the English personal pronouns
along the four dimensions of case, person, number, and gender.
Singular
First Person: I, me, mine
Second Person: you, you, yours
Third Person: Male (he, him, his), Female (she, her, hers), Thing (it, it, its)
Plural
First Person: we, us, ours
Second Person: you, you, yours
Third Person: they, them, theirs
3. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
Demonstrative Pronouns point out a specific person, animals, places, things or ideas.
List of Demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these, those
That is his book.
I want to exchange this for that and these for those.
This is an excellent question.
4. INTENSIVE PRONOUNS
Intensive pronouns (also called emphatic) end with self or selves and emphasize (intensify) a noun or another pronoun.
They make you notice the nouns and pronouns they go with.
Instructor himself ordered this product.
In that sentence, the pronoun is himself and it goes with the noun Instructor.
We did all the work ourselves.
In that sentence, the pronoun is ourselves and it goes with the pronoun We.
List of Intensive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, oneself, ourselves, themselves, yourselves.
Table shows English Intensive pronouns
classified by gender, person and number.
Singular
First Person: myself
Second Person: yourself
Third Person: himself, herself, itself
Plural
Ourselves
Yourselves
Themselves
5. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
Reflexive pronouns are the same as intensive pronouns (see above) but they don’t intensify; they point back to the subject of the sentence.
He wanted to kick himself for even making that stupid comment.
I bought myself a new shirt.
6. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
Indefinite pronouns do not refer to any particular persons or places or things. They replace nouns without specifying which noun they replace.
List of Indefinite pronouns
Singular: another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, little, much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, other, somebody, someone, something
Plural: both, few, many, others, several
Singular or plural: all, any, more, most, none, some
Hint: Indefinite pronouns that end in -one or -body are always singular except none
These words include: anyone, everyone, someone, one, anybody, somebody, nobody.
Examples: Pronouns that are always singular
Everybody can do something, but nobody can do everything.
Either looks like a good option.
Examples: Pronouns that are always plural
Few were late for the meeting.
Many bought tickets to the show.
For indefinite pronouns that can be singular or plural, it depends on what the indefinite pronoun refers to.
There is a lot of furniture in the room; some is damaged.
some refers to furniture, which is singular.
There are many books there; some are very interesting.
some refers to books, which is plural.
7. RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS
Reciprocal Pronouns show a mutual relationship. They are each other and one another.
Each other is used when the group consists of just two people, animals or things.
One another is used when the groups consists of more than two people, animals ot things.
Examples
John and Bob respect each other.
We are commanded to love one another.
8. RELATIVE PRONOUNS
Relative Pronoun begins a subordinate clause and connects that clause to another noun that precedes it in the sentence. Relative pronouns list: who, whom, whose, whoever, whomever, which, whichever, that, what, whatever.
Examples
It is a book that is difficult to ignore.
The dog, which is a terrier, is four years old.
I will consider renting or buying, whichever works out best.
All relative pronouns do not change the form with gender, person, or number.
Only who changes form with case.
Subjective: who
Objective: whom
Possessive: whose
Examples
The girl who told me the story lives down the street.
The girl whom I chose will get a present.
I am not sure whose that is.
9. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
Interrogative pronouns are used to begin or introduce interrogative sentences.
They are who, whom, whose, what, and which.
They are similar to the Relative Pronouns; the difference is their use in the sentence.
Examples
Whom did you invite to the party?
Which did you prefer?
Who did what to whom?
LESSON C: VERBS
What is a verb?
A verb is a word that shows action or being. Whatever you are doing can be expressed by a verb.
Verbs can be classified according to whether they are action verbs or linking verbs.
1. ACTION VERBS
There are two types of action verbs: transitive and intransitive.
A. TRANSITIVE VERBS
A transitive verb expresses an action and is followed by an object that receives the action of the verb.
In the following examples, transitive verbs are shown in color and direct objects of these verbs are underlined.
I washed (what?) the car yesterday.
I took (whom?) my sister to the movie.
John studies (what?) English.
B. INTRANSITIVE VERBS
An intransitive verb expresses an action but is not followed by an object. Applying (what?) or (whom?) test to an intransitive verb shows immediately that an object cannot follow.
Tom’s grades improved (what? whom?) with the help of a tutor.
The child cried (what? whom?) loudly.
The mother sang (what? whom?) to her children.
Many verbs can be both transitive and intransitive.
In the following examples, transitive verbs are shown in color and direct objects of transitive verbs are underlined. Intransitive verbs are shown in color and underlined.
John studies (what?) English.
John studies hard.
The mother sang (what?) the song to her children.
2. LINKING VERBS
Linking verbs do not show action.
A linking verb (also called copulative verb) links or establishes a relationship between the subject and its complement. It describes or renames the subject.
She is angry.
The word is (a form of the verb to be) links the subject she to the subject complement angry.
Linking Verb followed by predicate nouns:
My friend is a teacher.
Mike became the president of the company.
Linking Verb followed by predicate adjectives:
I feel nervous.
That pie tastes delicious.
List of common linking verbs
appear, become, feel, get, go, grow, look, prove, remain, seem, smell, sound, taste, turn and any form of the verb be. See The verb "To Be" below.
Only become and seem are always linking verbs. Other verbs from the list above sometimes can function as action verbs.
In the following examples, verbs feel and taste are functioning as action verbs.
I feel pain from the injury.
Taste the pie and tell me if you like it.
To determine whether a verb is a linking verb substitute am, is, or are for the verb. If it fits – the substituted verb is a linking verb.
In the following examples, verb feel is substituted with am.
I feel nervous.
I am nervous.
Makes sense so feel is linking verb.
I feel pain from the injury.
I am pain from the injury.
Does not make sense so feel is action verb.
THE THREE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS:
PRESENT, PAST, AND PAST PARTICIPLE.
a. PRESENT
The Present is used by itself for the present tense.
I jump.
I eat.
And with helping verb will for the future tense
I will jump.
I will eat.
b. PAST
The Past is used for the past tense
I jumped.
I ate.
c. PAST PARTICIPLE
The Past participle is used with the verb have (has, had) to form perfect tenses.
Present perfect
I have jumped.
I have eaten.
Past perfect
I had jumped.
I had eaten.
Future perfect
I will have jumped.
I will have eaten.
ENGLISH REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS
Regular Verbs
Most English verbs are regular. Regular verbs just add –d or –ed when they change principal parts from the present to the past to the past participle.
I learn English now. (present)
I learned English last year. (past)
In a short time she has learned English well. (past participle)
Irregular Verbs
Irregular Verbs form their past tenses and past participles in unpredictable ways. There are some patterns among them (blow-blew, know-knew,...), (spring-sprang, drink-drank,...) but it is not always easy to apply these paterns. The only way to learn irregular verbs is to memorize them.
COMPLETE, MAIN AND HELPING VERBS
Complete verb consists of a main verb (also called full or non-auxiliary verb) and can have up to three helping verbs (also called auxiliary verbs) .
What is a Main Verb?
The main verb expresses the main action or state of being in the sentence.
I drive my car every day.
English verbs are simple.
What is a helping (auxiliary) verb?
Helping verbs help main verbs express tenses.
Here is the list of helping verbs
am, are, is, was, were, be, being, been
do, does, did
shall, will
may, must, might
have, has, had
can, could, would, should
A main verb can have up to three helping verbs. In the following examples, helping verbs are underlined and main verbs are shown in color
I am learning Spanish Grammar.
I should have known the answer to that question.
Marsha will have been studying English for more than a year by the time she leaves for US.
Note that the verb to be can be main and helping verb in the same sentence.
I am late. (am here as the main verb)
I am driving a car. ( am here as a helping verb)
I am being late again. ( am - helping verb, being – main verb)
The verb "To Be" – (also "The verb of being")
The verb To Be is the most common/used verb in the English language.
Here are eight words to the verb to be
am, are, is, was, were, be, being, been
Here are tenses of the verb to be.
Present Tense:
I am, you are, he/she/it, is, we are, they are
Past Tense:
I was, you were, he/she/it, was, we were, they were
Future Tense:
I will be, you will be, he/she/it, will be, we will be, they will be
Present Perfect Tense:
I have been, you have been, he/she/it, has been, we have been, they have been
Past Perfect Tense:
I had been, you had been, he/she/it, had been, we had been, they had been
Future Perfect Tense:
I will have been, you will have been, he/she/it, have been, we will have been, they will have been
What is English Grammar?
English grammar is a body of rules (grammar) specifying how phrases and sentences are constructed in the English language.
Grammar Lessons:
(a) Nouns
(b) Pronouns
(c) Verbs
(d) Verb Tenses
(e) Adverbs
(f)Adjectives
LESSON A: NOUNS
What is a noun?
A noun is a word that names a person, animal, place, thing, idea, or concept. There are more nouns in the English Language than any other kind of words.
Examples of Nouns:
Persons: girl, boy, teacher, student, Mr. Bean, John, president
Animals: dog, cat, rabbit, hamster, fish, horse, flea
Places: gym, store, school, village, Europe, Asia, bookstore
Things: computer, pen, notebook, mailbox, door, tree, curtain
Ideas: panic, attention, knowledge, compassion, worship
SINGULAR AND PLURAL NOUNS: FORMATION OF PLURAL NOUNS
Singular means one of something.
Plural means more than one.
You can make most nouns plural by just adding -s
one tree - four trees
one boat – a river full of boats
If the noun ends with -s, -ch, -sh, -x, or -z, add -es to make it plural
witness– witnesses
church – churches
dish– dishes
fox - foxes
buzz – buzzes
If the noun ends with -y and the letter before the -y is a vowel, add -s to make the noun plural.
boy–boys
bay – bays
key – keys
toy - toys
If the noun ends with -y and the letter before the -y is a consonant, change the -y to -i and add -es to make the noun plural.
army – armies
supply - supplies
sky - skies
Nouns ending in -ff become plural by adding -s
tariff - tariffs
sheriff - sheriffs
plaintiff - plaintiffs
The inconsistency of rules is shown in the plurals of nouns which ends in –f or -fe Some become plural by replacing the -f to -v and adding -s or -es
knife - knives
wife - wives
half - halves
leaf - leaves
Other nouns ending in -f or -fe become plural by only adding -s
belief - beliefs
proof - proofs
chief - chiefs
TYPES OF NOUNS
1. COMMON NOUNS
A common noun names any regular, ordinary person, animal, place, thing, or idea. Nothing specific.
Examples of Common Nouns: superhero, river, holiday, religion, month, day, city, composer, boy, car, language
2. PROPER NOUNS
A proper noun names a very specific, very particular person, animal, place, thing, or idea. A proper noun always begins with capital letter (is capitalized).
Examples of Proper Nouns: Batman, Mississippi River, Fourth of July, Buddhism, December, Monday, London, Ludwig van Beethoven, Peter, Volvo, Spanish
3. CONCRETE NOUNS
A concrete noun names a person, animal, place, or thing that you can actually see, touch, taste, hear, or smell. Concrete nouns are something physical.
Examples of concrete nouns: spaghetti, muffins, perfume, water, book, room, pen, composer, boy, car
4. ABSTRACT NOUNS
An abstract noun names an idea, feeling, emotion, or quality that cannot be detected by your five senses.
Examples of abstract nouns: prettiness, pleasure, annoyance, skill, nature, communication, love, velocity, education
5. COLLECTIVE NOUNS
A collective noun names a group of people, animals or things.
Examples of Collective Nouns:
People: audience, crowd, jury, family, group, nation, staff, cast, gang, team
Animals: flock, colony, swarm, gaggle, herd
Things: bunch, bundle, set, stack, cache, batch, bouquet
6. COMPOUND NOUNS
A compound noun is made up of two or more words used together.
Compound nouns can be:
One word: shoelace, keyboard, flashlight, applesauce, notebook, bedroom
Hyphenated: sky-scraper, boy-friend, baby-sitter, editor-in-chief, great-grandfather
Two words: police officer, seat belt, high school, word processor, post office
7. COUNTABLE NOUNS
A countable noun is a type of noun that can be:
Presented in both the singular form and the plural form
Represented by a number, such as two cats, five books
8. UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
Uncountable nouns are nouns that can not be counted.
Examples of uncountable nouns: water, air, grass, paint, oil etc.
LESSON B: PRONOUNS
What is a pronoun?
A Pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.
Usually pronouns refer to something that was already mentioned in previous sentence or understood by the listener or reader. They are very useful words because when you use them, you do not need to repeat nouns all the time.
Without pronouns
Sara is my neighbor. Sara says that Sara likes to sleep.
With pronouns
Sara is my neighbor. She says that she likes to sleep.
TYPES OF PRONOUNS
1. PERSONAL PRONOUNS
In order to use personal pronouns, it is important to know about case (subject, object, and possessive), number (singular and plural), person (first, second, and third), and gender (male, female and neutral).
Subject Pronouns: I, you, she, he, it, we, they are used as a subject or predicate noun.
She is a teacher.
It was he who said that.
Object Pronouns: me, you, him, her, them, us, it are used as an indirect object, direct object, or object of a preposition.
She baked him a pie.
I can hardly see it.
They are going with us.
2. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS: mine, yours, his, hers, theirs, ours, its take the place of possessive nouns.
If this isn’t ours, it must be theirs.
Yours is much better then mine.
Below show the breakdown of the English personal pronouns
along the four dimensions of case, person, number, and gender.
Singular
First Person: I, me, mine
Second Person: you, you, yours
Third Person: Male (he, him, his), Female (she, her, hers), Thing (it, it, its)
Plural
First Person: we, us, ours
Second Person: you, you, yours
Third Person: they, them, theirs
3. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS
Demonstrative Pronouns point out a specific person, animals, places, things or ideas.
List of Demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these, those
That is his book.
I want to exchange this for that and these for those.
This is an excellent question.
4. INTENSIVE PRONOUNS
Intensive pronouns (also called emphatic) end with self or selves and emphasize (intensify) a noun or another pronoun.
They make you notice the nouns and pronouns they go with.
Instructor himself ordered this product.
In that sentence, the pronoun is himself and it goes with the noun Instructor.
We did all the work ourselves.
In that sentence, the pronoun is ourselves and it goes with the pronoun We.
List of Intensive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, oneself, ourselves, themselves, yourselves.
Table shows English Intensive pronouns
classified by gender, person and number.
Singular
First Person: myself
Second Person: yourself
Third Person: himself, herself, itself
Plural
Ourselves
Yourselves
Themselves
5. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
Reflexive pronouns are the same as intensive pronouns (see above) but they don’t intensify; they point back to the subject of the sentence.
He wanted to kick himself for even making that stupid comment.
I bought myself a new shirt.
6. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
Indefinite pronouns do not refer to any particular persons or places or things. They replace nouns without specifying which noun they replace.
List of Indefinite pronouns
Singular: another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, little, much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, other, somebody, someone, something
Plural: both, few, many, others, several
Singular or plural: all, any, more, most, none, some
Hint: Indefinite pronouns that end in -one or -body are always singular except none
These words include: anyone, everyone, someone, one, anybody, somebody, nobody.
Examples: Pronouns that are always singular
Everybody can do something, but nobody can do everything.
Either looks like a good option.
Examples: Pronouns that are always plural
Few were late for the meeting.
Many bought tickets to the show.
For indefinite pronouns that can be singular or plural, it depends on what the indefinite pronoun refers to.
There is a lot of furniture in the room; some is damaged.
some refers to furniture, which is singular.
There are many books there; some are very interesting.
some refers to books, which is plural.
7. RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS
Reciprocal Pronouns show a mutual relationship. They are each other and one another.
Each other is used when the group consists of just two people, animals or things.
One another is used when the groups consists of more than two people, animals ot things.
Examples
John and Bob respect each other.
We are commanded to love one another.
8. RELATIVE PRONOUNS
Relative Pronoun begins a subordinate clause and connects that clause to another noun that precedes it in the sentence. Relative pronouns list: who, whom, whose, whoever, whomever, which, whichever, that, what, whatever.
Examples
It is a book that is difficult to ignore.
The dog, which is a terrier, is four years old.
I will consider renting or buying, whichever works out best.
All relative pronouns do not change the form with gender, person, or number.
Only who changes form with case.
Subjective: who
Objective: whom
Possessive: whose
Examples
The girl who told me the story lives down the street.
The girl whom I chose will get a present.
I am not sure whose that is.
9. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
Interrogative pronouns are used to begin or introduce interrogative sentences.
They are who, whom, whose, what, and which.
They are similar to the Relative Pronouns; the difference is their use in the sentence.
Examples
Whom did you invite to the party?
Which did you prefer?
Who did what to whom?
LESSON C: VERBS
What is a verb?
A verb is a word that shows action or being. Whatever you are doing can be expressed by a verb.
Verbs can be classified according to whether they are action verbs or linking verbs.
1. ACTION VERBS
There are two types of action verbs: transitive and intransitive.
A. TRANSITIVE VERBS
A transitive verb expresses an action and is followed by an object that receives the action of the verb.
In the following examples, transitive verbs are shown in color and direct objects of these verbs are underlined.
I washed (what?) the car yesterday.
I took (whom?) my sister to the movie.
John studies (what?) English.
B. INTRANSITIVE VERBS
An intransitive verb expresses an action but is not followed by an object. Applying (what?) or (whom?) test to an intransitive verb shows immediately that an object cannot follow.
Tom’s grades improved (what? whom?) with the help of a tutor.
The child cried (what? whom?) loudly.
The mother sang (what? whom?) to her children.
Many verbs can be both transitive and intransitive.
In the following examples, transitive verbs are shown in color and direct objects of transitive verbs are underlined. Intransitive verbs are shown in color and underlined.
John studies (what?) English.
John studies hard.
The mother sang (what?) the song to her children.
2. LINKING VERBS
Linking verbs do not show action.
A linking verb (also called copulative verb) links or establishes a relationship between the subject and its complement. It describes or renames the subject.
She is angry.
The word is (a form of the verb to be) links the subject she to the subject complement angry.
Linking Verb followed by predicate nouns:
My friend is a teacher.
Mike became the president of the company.
Linking Verb followed by predicate adjectives:
I feel nervous.
That pie tastes delicious.
List of common linking verbs
appear, become, feel, get, go, grow, look, prove, remain, seem, smell, sound, taste, turn and any form of the verb be. See The verb "To Be" below.
Only become and seem are always linking verbs. Other verbs from the list above sometimes can function as action verbs.
In the following examples, verbs feel and taste are functioning as action verbs.
I feel pain from the injury.
Taste the pie and tell me if you like it.
To determine whether a verb is a linking verb substitute am, is, or are for the verb. If it fits – the substituted verb is a linking verb.
In the following examples, verb feel is substituted with am.
I feel nervous.
I am nervous.
Makes sense so feel is linking verb.
I feel pain from the injury.
I am pain from the injury.
Does not make sense so feel is action verb.
THE THREE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS:
PRESENT, PAST, AND PAST PARTICIPLE.
a. PRESENT
The Present is used by itself for the present tense.
I jump.
I eat.
And with helping verb will for the future tense
I will jump.
I will eat.
b. PAST
The Past is used for the past tense
I jumped.
I ate.
c. PAST PARTICIPLE
The Past participle is used with the verb have (has, had) to form perfect tenses.
Present perfect
I have jumped.
I have eaten.
Past perfect
I had jumped.
I had eaten.
Future perfect
I will have jumped.
I will have eaten.
ENGLISH REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS
Regular Verbs
Most English verbs are regular. Regular verbs just add –d or –ed when they change principal parts from the present to the past to the past participle.
I learn English now. (present)
I learned English last year. (past)
In a short time she has learned English well. (past participle)
Irregular Verbs
Irregular Verbs form their past tenses and past participles in unpredictable ways. There are some patterns among them (blow-blew, know-knew,...), (spring-sprang, drink-drank,...) but it is not always easy to apply these paterns. The only way to learn irregular verbs is to memorize them.
COMPLETE, MAIN AND HELPING VERBS
Complete verb consists of a main verb (also called full or non-auxiliary verb) and can have up to three helping verbs (also called auxiliary verbs) .
What is a Main Verb?
The main verb expresses the main action or state of being in the sentence.
I drive my car every day.
English verbs are simple.
What is a helping (auxiliary) verb?
Helping verbs help main verbs express tenses.
Here is the list of helping verbs
am, are, is, was, were, be, being, been
do, does, did
shall, will
may, must, might
have, has, had
can, could, would, should
A main verb can have up to three helping verbs. In the following examples, helping verbs are underlined and main verbs are shown in color
I am learning Spanish Grammar.
I should have known the answer to that question.
Marsha will have been studying English for more than a year by the time she leaves for US.
Note that the verb to be can be main and helping verb in the same sentence.
I am late. (am here as the main verb)
I am driving a car. ( am here as a helping verb)
I am being late again. ( am - helping verb, being – main verb)
The verb "To Be" – (also "The verb of being")
The verb To Be is the most common/used verb in the English language.
Here are eight words to the verb to be
am, are, is, was, were, be, being, been
Here are tenses of the verb to be.
Present Tense:
I am, you are, he/she/it, is, we are, they are
Past Tense:
I was, you were, he/she/it, was, we were, they were
Future Tense:
I will be, you will be, he/she/it, will be, we will be, they will be
Present Perfect Tense:
I have been, you have been, he/she/it, has been, we have been, they have been
Past Perfect Tense:
I had been, you had been, he/she/it, had been, we had been, they had been
Future Perfect Tense:
I will have been, you will have been, he/she/it, have been, we will have been, they will have been
LESSON D: ENGLISH VERB TENSES
1. THE SIMPLE TENSES
2. THE PROGRESSIVE (CONTINUOUS) TENSES
3. THE PERFECT TENSES
4. THE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE (CONTINUOUS) TENSES
I. THE SIMPLE TENSES
SIMPLE PRESENT EXAMPLES
1. General statements of fact. Expresses event or situation that exists at this moment, have existed in the past and almost certainly will exist in the future.
The Earth is round.
The compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses.
There are eight main parts of speech in English.
2. Expresses habitual or everyday activity.
I study English Grammar every morning.
My classes begin at eight.
I always come to class prepared.
3. Expresses event or situation that exists right now, at the moment of speaking.
I don't recognize you.
She has a headache right now.
I need a dollar now.
Simple Past Examples
Expresses event or situation that began and ended at a particular time in the past (anytime before now).
I finished my homework last Friday.
It snowed yesterday again.
John studied English verbs for ten days.
Simple Future Examples
Expresses event or situation that will happen at one particular time in the future (anytime after now).
will, shall or be going to is used to express future time.
use of Shall is more frequent in British than in American English
I am going to finish my homework tomorrow.
He will post grammar worksheets on-line.
It will snow tonight again.
II. THE PROGRESSIVE (CONTINUOUS) TENSES Form:
be + -ing (present participle)
Example: is sleeping, was sleeping, will be sleeping
The Continuous Tenses give the idea that action/event is in progress during a particular time.
Present Progressive
(Present Continuous)
1. Expresses an activity that began in the recent past, is in progress at the moment of speaking, and will probably end at some point in the future.
He is writing an article right now.
It is raining heavily outside.
They are talking on a phone.
2. Expresses an activity of a general nature: something that is in progress today, this week, this month, this year, but it does not necessarily mean that this activity is in progress at the moment of speaking.
He is writing another article this month. not necessarily at this moment
This week we are learning Spanish Tenses.
I am trying to improve my grades.
Past Progressive (Past Continuous)
1. Both actions occurred at the same time but one action was already in progress when the other action occurred.
He was writing an article when we arrived.
It was raining when accident happened.
They were talking on a phone when it began to rain.
Last night at this time we were learning Spanish Tenses.
2. Past Continuous is used in both parts of a sentence to show that both actions are in progress simultaneously.
He was writing an article while it was raining.
While we were learning Spanish Verbs, they were having a party.
It was raining while I was walking down the street.
3. Sometimes Past Continuous can be used interchangeably with Simple Past giving almost the same meaning.
It rained yesterday. (Simple Past)
It was raining yesterday. (Past Continuous)
Future Progressive
(Future Continuous)
Future Tenses is not used in clauses beginning with when, while, unless, by the time, as soon as, before, after and if
1. Expresses action that will be happening at a particular time in the future.
He will be working when we arrive. (NOTE "we arrive" because of "when" - not "we will arrive")
At this time tomorrow, I will be learning English grammar.
2. Expresses the idea that two actions will be happening at the same time (Parallel Actions).
While you are sleeping, I will be studying Spanish Gammar. (NOTE "are sleeping" because of "while")
He will be writing an article while it is raining. (NOTE "is raining" because of "while")
3. Sometimes there is no difference between the Future Continuous and Simple Future.
Spring will comme soon. (Simple Future)
Spring will be coming soon. (Future Continuous)
III. THE PERFECT TENSES
Form: Have + past participle
Perfect Tenses give the idea that one event happens before another event or time.
Present Perfect
Action is completed. The exact time is not important.
I have already eaten.
Past Perfect
One event happened before another event.
I had already eaten when he arrived.
Future Perfect
One event will happen before another event.
I will already have eaten when he arrived.
IV. THE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE (CONTINUOUS) TENSES Form: Have + been + -ing (present participle)
Perfect Continuous/Progressive Tenses give the idea that one event is in progress right before another event or time.
Present Perfect Progressive
I have been eating for fifteen minutes.
Past Perfect Progressive
I had been eating for fifteen minutes before he arrived.
Future Perfect Progressive
I will have been eating for fifteen minutes by the time he arrive. LESSON E: ADVERBS
What is an adverb?
An adverb is a part of speech that describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, another adverb, clause, or sentence.
Adverbs answer the questions "How?", "When?", "Where?", "Why?", "In what way?", "How much?", "How often?", "Under what condition", "To what degree?"
The easiest adverbs to recognize are those that end in -ly. Some adjectives end with -ly also but remember that adjectives can modify only nouns and pronouns. Adverbs modify everyting else.
An adverb can be placed anywhere in a sentence.
1. ADVERBS AS MODIFIERS (ADVERBS IN ADVERBIAL FUNCTIONS)
An adverb modifies a verb
He walked quickly. ('quickly' modifies verb 'walked')
I accepted new task willingly. ('willingly' modifies verb 'accepted')
Mike snored melodically. ('melodically' modifies verb 'snored')
An adverb modifies an adjective
They were really unhappy. ('really' modifies adjective 'unhappy')
My brother is completely fearless. ('completely' modifies adjective 'fearless')
I know she is very careful. ('very' modifies adjective 'careful')
An adverb modifies an adverb
He is almost always hungry. ('almost' modifies adverb 'hungry')
John plays tennis very well. ('very' modifies adverb 'well')
You never can work too carefully. ('too' modifies adverb 'carefully')
An adverb modifies a clause
Perhaps you are correct, but not at first glance. ('perhaps' modifies clause 'you are correct')
Surely he will be on time, but I hope not. ('surely' modifies clause 'he will be on time')
An adverb modifies a sentence
Suddenly, she went home. ('suddenly' modifies a whole sentence)
Finally, he will be on time. ('finally' modifies a whole sentence)
Today, we can take a vacation.('today' modifies a whole sentence)
ADVERB FORMATION
Adverbs that end in -ly are formed by adding -ly to an adjective, a present participle, or a past participle.
- from an adjective
careful - carefully
beautiful - beautiful
fitting - fittingly
- from a present participle
willing - willingly
glowing - glowingly
surprising - surprisingly
- from a past participle
assured - assuredly
affected - affectedly
surprised - surprisedly
When adjective ends in -able or -ible, the adverb is formed by replacing final -e with -y
horrible - horribly
terrible - terribly
When adjective ends in -y, the adverb is formed by replacing final -y with -ily
happy - happily
lucky - luckily
When adjective ends in -ic, the adverb is formed by replacing final -ic with -ically
economic - economically
ironic - ironically
ADVERBS POSITION
Adverbs can be placed anywhere in a sentence.
At the front (prior to the subject)
Today we will study adverbs.
Lately, I have had lots of phone calls.
At the center of the sentence (between the subject and the verb)
He seldom goes to movies.
I hardly noticed her.
At the end of the sentence
I learn English slowly.
I study adverbs now.
ADVERBS AS INTENSIFIERS
Adverbs can be used as amplifiers, down toners, or emphasizers.
- as emphasizers
I really likes him.
I literally wrecked my car.
- as amplifiers
They completely abandoned the city.
I absolutely refuse to leave.
- as down toners
I somewhat like this movie.
Peter almost quit that job.
ADVERBS CAN BE CLASSIFIED BY THEIR FUNCTIONS.
Adverb lists that follow each category are only partial ones.
Adverbs of manner - answer the question How?
I watch them closely.
I play well.
I walk carefully.
List: cheerfully, fast, quicly, slowly, inadequately, healthy
Adverbs of time - answer the question When?
He has not played chess recently.
I arrive late for most appointments.
Lately, I have had many sleepless nights.
List: early, never, now, often, soon, then, today, tomorrow
Adverbs of place (location, direction) - answer the question Where?
I walked downstairs.
Have you ever gone there?
I will meet you outside.
List: above, away, below, down, here, inside, there, up
Adverbs of degree - answer the question How much?
He is totally prepared for his birthday.
I am too tired to play tennis tonight.
He is completely tired from the journey.
List: almost, entirely, little, much, rather, very, too
Adverbs of frequency - answer the question How often?
He rarely goes by himself.
She constantly finishes her job first.
always, never, usually, frequently, sometimes, occasionally
Conjunctive (connecting) adverbs - connect the ideas expressed in different clauses or sentences.
Use of conjunctive adverb between two independent clauses requires a semicolon before the adverb and comma after it.
I want to sleep; however, I need to study.
If conjunctive adverb is used at the beginning of a sentence, comma is used to set it off. note that the period takes the place of a semicolon.
The day was over. Therefore, I went to sleep.
If conjunctive adverb is placed within a clause, commas are used to set it off.
The day is over. I will, therefore, go to sleep.
Some of the most common conjunctive adverbs: accordingly, also, anyhow, furthermore, however, moreover, otherwise, still, therefore.
Interrogative adverbs - used at the beginning of questions.
Why are you so angry?
When does the movie start?
List: why, where, how, when
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
Like adjectives, adverbs have three forms of comparison: positive, comparative, and superlative.
Positive degree expresses the quality without comparison.
Comparative degree compares two verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.
Superlative degree compares three or more verbs, adjectives or adverbs.
Adverb comparison
Most adverbs are compared by using another adverb.
More or less are used to express the comparative degree.
Most or least are used to express the superlative degree.
I dance gracefully (or horribly).
I dance more gracefully (or more horribly).
I dance most gracefully ( or most horribly).
Suffix comparison
Some adverbs are compared using a suffix –er for the comparative forms and –est for the superlative forms.
I will arrive soon (or fast).
I will arrive sooner (or faster).
I will arrive soonest (or fastest).
Irregular comparison
There are also a number of adverbs compared irregularly.
These must be remembered. Here are some of them.
Positive: bad/badly, far, late/lately, little, much, well
Comparative: worse, farther/further, later, less, more, better
Superlative: worst, farthest/furthest, latest, least, most, best
Beyond comparison
Some adverbs are never compared. They express qualities unsuitable for comparison.
Here are some of them: again, almost, before, ever, never, here, there, now, then, there, thus, too, twice, very.
Note: The three most common adverbs used in English Language are: not, very, too
LESSON F: ADJECTIVES
What is an adjective?
An adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun or a pronoun.
An adjective describes or modifies a noun.
THREE QUESTIONS
Adjectives usually answer three questions about the nouns they describe:
1. What kind of?
I found a red rose in the cave.
What kind of rose? Red
2. How many?
Three tickets, please.
How many tickets? Three.
3. Which one(s)?
I would eat these muffins.
Which muffins? These.
KINDS OF ADJECTIVES
1. Demonstrative adjective
this, that, these, those are called demonstrative adjectives. They point out nouns.
They always answer the question which one?
In the following example, demonstrative adjectives are shown in color.
Let’s play this game and later watch that movie.
Remember that this, that, these, those can also act as demonstrative pronouns in which case they are not followed by nouns (as demonstrative adjectives are), but take the place of nouns.
In the following example, demonstrative pronouns are shown in color.
Let’s play this and later watch that.
2. Common adjective is just a simple, regular adjective. It describes a noun in a general way.
sharp, flexible, hot, red, hidden, dripping, nice, huge.
3. Proper adjective is derived from a proper noun and is capitalized.
Proper Noun: China, California, Mars, Spain, Christianity, Japan, Hollywood, Texas
Proper Adjective: Chinese, Californian, Martian, Spanish, Christian, Japanese, Hollywood, Texas
Sometimes, as in last two examples, a proper noun does not change at all to become a proper adjective.
Where does an adjective goes in a sentence?
Usually an adjective comes in front of the noun it is describing.
The big balloon floated over the dark sea.
An adjective can also come after a linking verb, like to be, and describe the subject of the sentence. In this case it is called predicate adjective.
The balloon was dark.
Comparison of Adjectives
Positive degree – the simplest form.
Comparative degree – comparing two things or persons.
Superlative degree – comparing three or more things or persons.
Positive: large, horrible
Comparative: larger, more horrible
Superlative: largest, most horrible
How to compare adjectives
1. Add er and est to short adjectives of one syllable (sometimes two syllables)
Positive: short, great, small, old
Comparative: shorter, greater, smaller, older
Superlative: shortest, greatest, smallest, oldest
2. If a short adjective ends with consonant and y, change the y to i and add er and est.
Positive: lucky, heavy, happy, silly, ugly
Comparative: luckier, heavier, happier, sillier, uglier
Superlative: luckiest, heaviest, happiest, silliest, ugliest
3. If a short adjective ends with e, add er and st.
Positive: little, fine
Comparative: littler, finer
Superlative: littlest, finest
4. Put more(less) and most(least) in front of longer adjectives (with two or more syllables) to show comparison.
Positive: appealing, remarkable, beautiful, alertComparative:less appealing, more remarkable, more beautiful, more alertSuperlative:least appealing, most remarkable, most beautiful, most alert
If you are uncertain whether to add er and est or to use more and most, then check dictionary. In most cases, you can trust your ears.
Some adjectives are irregular adjectives and don't follow thee rules. They change form considerably from one degree to the next. You need to study these changes carefully in order to recognize them easily.
List of irregular adjectives:
Positive: bad, far, good, many, little, old
Comparative: worse, farther, better, more, less, elder
Superlative: worst, farthest, best, most, least, eldest
Never use er or est at the same time you use more or most. These are incorrect: more shorter, most alertest
Incomparable adjectives.
Some adjectives cannot be compared because the positive (simplest) form expresses the only degree possible.
List of incomparable adjectives: perfect, unique, fatal, universal, dead, wrong, straight, blind, final, vertical, right, left
1. THE SIMPLE TENSES
2. THE PROGRESSIVE (CONTINUOUS) TENSES
3. THE PERFECT TENSES
4. THE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE (CONTINUOUS) TENSES
I. THE SIMPLE TENSES
SIMPLE PRESENT EXAMPLES
1. General statements of fact. Expresses event or situation that exists at this moment, have existed in the past and almost certainly will exist in the future.
The Earth is round.
The compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses.
There are eight main parts of speech in English.
2. Expresses habitual or everyday activity.
I study English Grammar every morning.
My classes begin at eight.
I always come to class prepared.
3. Expresses event or situation that exists right now, at the moment of speaking.
I don't recognize you.
She has a headache right now.
I need a dollar now.
Simple Past Examples
Expresses event or situation that began and ended at a particular time in the past (anytime before now).
I finished my homework last Friday.
It snowed yesterday again.
John studied English verbs for ten days.
Simple Future Examples
Expresses event or situation that will happen at one particular time in the future (anytime after now).
will, shall or be going to is used to express future time.
use of Shall is more frequent in British than in American English
I am going to finish my homework tomorrow.
He will post grammar worksheets on-line.
It will snow tonight again.
II. THE PROGRESSIVE (CONTINUOUS) TENSES Form:
be + -ing (present participle)
Example: is sleeping, was sleeping, will be sleeping
The Continuous Tenses give the idea that action/event is in progress during a particular time.
Present Progressive
(Present Continuous)
1. Expresses an activity that began in the recent past, is in progress at the moment of speaking, and will probably end at some point in the future.
He is writing an article right now.
It is raining heavily outside.
They are talking on a phone.
2. Expresses an activity of a general nature: something that is in progress today, this week, this month, this year, but it does not necessarily mean that this activity is in progress at the moment of speaking.
He is writing another article this month. not necessarily at this moment
This week we are learning Spanish Tenses.
I am trying to improve my grades.
Past Progressive (Past Continuous)
1. Both actions occurred at the same time but one action was already in progress when the other action occurred.
He was writing an article when we arrived.
It was raining when accident happened.
They were talking on a phone when it began to rain.
Last night at this time we were learning Spanish Tenses.
2. Past Continuous is used in both parts of a sentence to show that both actions are in progress simultaneously.
He was writing an article while it was raining.
While we were learning Spanish Verbs, they were having a party.
It was raining while I was walking down the street.
3. Sometimes Past Continuous can be used interchangeably with Simple Past giving almost the same meaning.
It rained yesterday. (Simple Past)
It was raining yesterday. (Past Continuous)
Future Progressive
(Future Continuous)
Future Tenses is not used in clauses beginning with when, while, unless, by the time, as soon as, before, after and if
1. Expresses action that will be happening at a particular time in the future.
He will be working when we arrive. (NOTE "we arrive" because of "when" - not "we will arrive")
At this time tomorrow, I will be learning English grammar.
2. Expresses the idea that two actions will be happening at the same time (Parallel Actions).
While you are sleeping, I will be studying Spanish Gammar. (NOTE "are sleeping" because of "while")
He will be writing an article while it is raining. (NOTE "is raining" because of "while")
3. Sometimes there is no difference between the Future Continuous and Simple Future.
Spring will comme soon. (Simple Future)
Spring will be coming soon. (Future Continuous)
III. THE PERFECT TENSES
Form: Have + past participle
Perfect Tenses give the idea that one event happens before another event or time.
Present Perfect
Action is completed. The exact time is not important.
I have already eaten.
Past Perfect
One event happened before another event.
I had already eaten when he arrived.
Future Perfect
One event will happen before another event.
I will already have eaten when he arrived.
IV. THE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE (CONTINUOUS) TENSES Form: Have + been + -ing (present participle)
Perfect Continuous/Progressive Tenses give the idea that one event is in progress right before another event or time.
Present Perfect Progressive
I have been eating for fifteen minutes.
Past Perfect Progressive
I had been eating for fifteen minutes before he arrived.
Future Perfect Progressive
I will have been eating for fifteen minutes by the time he arrive. LESSON E: ADVERBS
What is an adverb?
An adverb is a part of speech that describes or modifies a verb, an adjective, another adverb, clause, or sentence.
Adverbs answer the questions "How?", "When?", "Where?", "Why?", "In what way?", "How much?", "How often?", "Under what condition", "To what degree?"
The easiest adverbs to recognize are those that end in -ly. Some adjectives end with -ly also but remember that adjectives can modify only nouns and pronouns. Adverbs modify everyting else.
An adverb can be placed anywhere in a sentence.
1. ADVERBS AS MODIFIERS (ADVERBS IN ADVERBIAL FUNCTIONS)
An adverb modifies a verb
He walked quickly. ('quickly' modifies verb 'walked')
I accepted new task willingly. ('willingly' modifies verb 'accepted')
Mike snored melodically. ('melodically' modifies verb 'snored')
An adverb modifies an adjective
They were really unhappy. ('really' modifies adjective 'unhappy')
My brother is completely fearless. ('completely' modifies adjective 'fearless')
I know she is very careful. ('very' modifies adjective 'careful')
An adverb modifies an adverb
He is almost always hungry. ('almost' modifies adverb 'hungry')
John plays tennis very well. ('very' modifies adverb 'well')
You never can work too carefully. ('too' modifies adverb 'carefully')
An adverb modifies a clause
Perhaps you are correct, but not at first glance. ('perhaps' modifies clause 'you are correct')
Surely he will be on time, but I hope not. ('surely' modifies clause 'he will be on time')
An adverb modifies a sentence
Suddenly, she went home. ('suddenly' modifies a whole sentence)
Finally, he will be on time. ('finally' modifies a whole sentence)
Today, we can take a vacation.('today' modifies a whole sentence)
ADVERB FORMATION
Adverbs that end in -ly are formed by adding -ly to an adjective, a present participle, or a past participle.
- from an adjective
careful - carefully
beautiful - beautiful
fitting - fittingly
- from a present participle
willing - willingly
glowing - glowingly
surprising - surprisingly
- from a past participle
assured - assuredly
affected - affectedly
surprised - surprisedly
When adjective ends in -able or -ible, the adverb is formed by replacing final -e with -y
horrible - horribly
terrible - terribly
When adjective ends in -y, the adverb is formed by replacing final -y with -ily
happy - happily
lucky - luckily
When adjective ends in -ic, the adverb is formed by replacing final -ic with -ically
economic - economically
ironic - ironically
ADVERBS POSITION
Adverbs can be placed anywhere in a sentence.
At the front (prior to the subject)
Today we will study adverbs.
Lately, I have had lots of phone calls.
At the center of the sentence (between the subject and the verb)
He seldom goes to movies.
I hardly noticed her.
At the end of the sentence
I learn English slowly.
I study adverbs now.
ADVERBS AS INTENSIFIERS
Adverbs can be used as amplifiers, down toners, or emphasizers.
- as emphasizers
I really likes him.
I literally wrecked my car.
- as amplifiers
They completely abandoned the city.
I absolutely refuse to leave.
- as down toners
I somewhat like this movie.
Peter almost quit that job.
ADVERBS CAN BE CLASSIFIED BY THEIR FUNCTIONS.
Adverb lists that follow each category are only partial ones.
Adverbs of manner - answer the question How?
I watch them closely.
I play well.
I walk carefully.
List: cheerfully, fast, quicly, slowly, inadequately, healthy
Adverbs of time - answer the question When?
He has not played chess recently.
I arrive late for most appointments.
Lately, I have had many sleepless nights.
List: early, never, now, often, soon, then, today, tomorrow
Adverbs of place (location, direction) - answer the question Where?
I walked downstairs.
Have you ever gone there?
I will meet you outside.
List: above, away, below, down, here, inside, there, up
Adverbs of degree - answer the question How much?
He is totally prepared for his birthday.
I am too tired to play tennis tonight.
He is completely tired from the journey.
List: almost, entirely, little, much, rather, very, too
Adverbs of frequency - answer the question How often?
He rarely goes by himself.
She constantly finishes her job first.
always, never, usually, frequently, sometimes, occasionally
Conjunctive (connecting) adverbs - connect the ideas expressed in different clauses or sentences.
Use of conjunctive adverb between two independent clauses requires a semicolon before the adverb and comma after it.
I want to sleep; however, I need to study.
If conjunctive adverb is used at the beginning of a sentence, comma is used to set it off. note that the period takes the place of a semicolon.
The day was over. Therefore, I went to sleep.
If conjunctive adverb is placed within a clause, commas are used to set it off.
The day is over. I will, therefore, go to sleep.
Some of the most common conjunctive adverbs: accordingly, also, anyhow, furthermore, however, moreover, otherwise, still, therefore.
Interrogative adverbs - used at the beginning of questions.
Why are you so angry?
When does the movie start?
List: why, where, how, when
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
Like adjectives, adverbs have three forms of comparison: positive, comparative, and superlative.
Positive degree expresses the quality without comparison.
Comparative degree compares two verbs, adjectives, or adverbs.
Superlative degree compares three or more verbs, adjectives or adverbs.
Adverb comparison
Most adverbs are compared by using another adverb.
More or less are used to express the comparative degree.
Most or least are used to express the superlative degree.
I dance gracefully (or horribly).
I dance more gracefully (or more horribly).
I dance most gracefully ( or most horribly).
Suffix comparison
Some adverbs are compared using a suffix –er for the comparative forms and –est for the superlative forms.
I will arrive soon (or fast).
I will arrive sooner (or faster).
I will arrive soonest (or fastest).
Irregular comparison
There are also a number of adverbs compared irregularly.
These must be remembered. Here are some of them.
Positive: bad/badly, far, late/lately, little, much, well
Comparative: worse, farther/further, later, less, more, better
Superlative: worst, farthest/furthest, latest, least, most, best
Beyond comparison
Some adverbs are never compared. They express qualities unsuitable for comparison.
Here are some of them: again, almost, before, ever, never, here, there, now, then, there, thus, too, twice, very.
Note: The three most common adverbs used in English Language are: not, very, too
LESSON F: ADJECTIVES
What is an adjective?
An adjective is a word that tells us more about a noun or a pronoun.
An adjective describes or modifies a noun.
THREE QUESTIONS
Adjectives usually answer three questions about the nouns they describe:
1. What kind of?
I found a red rose in the cave.
What kind of rose? Red
2. How many?
Three tickets, please.
How many tickets? Three.
3. Which one(s)?
I would eat these muffins.
Which muffins? These.
KINDS OF ADJECTIVES
1. Demonstrative adjective
this, that, these, those are called demonstrative adjectives. They point out nouns.
They always answer the question which one?
In the following example, demonstrative adjectives are shown in color.
Let’s play this game and later watch that movie.
Remember that this, that, these, those can also act as demonstrative pronouns in which case they are not followed by nouns (as demonstrative adjectives are), but take the place of nouns.
In the following example, demonstrative pronouns are shown in color.
Let’s play this and later watch that.
2. Common adjective is just a simple, regular adjective. It describes a noun in a general way.
sharp, flexible, hot, red, hidden, dripping, nice, huge.
3. Proper adjective is derived from a proper noun and is capitalized.
Proper Noun: China, California, Mars, Spain, Christianity, Japan, Hollywood, Texas
Proper Adjective: Chinese, Californian, Martian, Spanish, Christian, Japanese, Hollywood, Texas
Sometimes, as in last two examples, a proper noun does not change at all to become a proper adjective.
Where does an adjective goes in a sentence?
Usually an adjective comes in front of the noun it is describing.
The big balloon floated over the dark sea.
An adjective can also come after a linking verb, like to be, and describe the subject of the sentence. In this case it is called predicate adjective.
The balloon was dark.
Comparison of Adjectives
Positive degree – the simplest form.
Comparative degree – comparing two things or persons.
Superlative degree – comparing three or more things or persons.
Positive: large, horrible
Comparative: larger, more horrible
Superlative: largest, most horrible
How to compare adjectives
1. Add er and est to short adjectives of one syllable (sometimes two syllables)
Positive: short, great, small, old
Comparative: shorter, greater, smaller, older
Superlative: shortest, greatest, smallest, oldest
2. If a short adjective ends with consonant and y, change the y to i and add er and est.
Positive: lucky, heavy, happy, silly, ugly
Comparative: luckier, heavier, happier, sillier, uglier
Superlative: luckiest, heaviest, happiest, silliest, ugliest
3. If a short adjective ends with e, add er and st.
Positive: little, fine
Comparative: littler, finer
Superlative: littlest, finest
4. Put more(less) and most(least) in front of longer adjectives (with two or more syllables) to show comparison.
Positive: appealing, remarkable, beautiful, alertComparative:less appealing, more remarkable, more beautiful, more alertSuperlative:least appealing, most remarkable, most beautiful, most alert
If you are uncertain whether to add er and est or to use more and most, then check dictionary. In most cases, you can trust your ears.
Some adjectives are irregular adjectives and don't follow thee rules. They change form considerably from one degree to the next. You need to study these changes carefully in order to recognize them easily.
List of irregular adjectives:
Positive: bad, far, good, many, little, old
Comparative: worse, farther, better, more, less, elder
Superlative: worst, farthest, best, most, least, eldest
Never use er or est at the same time you use more or most. These are incorrect: more shorter, most alertest
Incomparable adjectives.
Some adjectives cannot be compared because the positive (simplest) form expresses the only degree possible.
List of incomparable adjectives: perfect, unique, fatal, universal, dead, wrong, straight, blind, final, vertical, right, left
